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Essay Writing Guide - Guidelines for the Submission of Essays and Assignments in the School of Geography and Environmental Science

Introduction

This guide presents a brief outline of some of the technical points which must be observed in essay writing within the School of Geography and Environmental Science (GES). With the exception of the details concerning footnotes and referencing (where requirements can vary greatly from subject to subject) the comments are applicable to essay writing generally.

The value of any essay lies primarily in the thoughts and ideas expressed. However, the type of essay that we expect from you may be very different to the essays that you have written during secondary school. The essays required in this subject are not an exercise in literary expression, nor are they merely a forum for a loose collection of information. They are a form of communicating knowledge within which there is a clear line of argument soundly supported by evidence and appropriate referencing. They test your ability to find, evaluate, synthesise and communicate information independently. The research required for such an essay is a significant part of the task, along with the selection and analysis of relevant information. In addition, you may be surprised (and hopefully challenged) that there is no ‘correct answer’ - it is the logic and development of your argument that we are primarily concerned with. SGES expects you to submit an essay that conforms to its official requirements - for example drawing maps, citing sources of information and using figures and tables of information - and hence we have provided a detailed account of what we expect. Please read this guide and follow its suggestions carefully.

1. How to Begin!

Essays must be well organised and should NOT be written "off the top of your head". Before starting to write it is essential that you know what you want to write and how you want to write it. Therefore, always construct a written plan that will enable you to clearly structure your thoughts and guide your argument and presentation. The plan should evolve as you find more information, discover new ideas and evidence, and arrange supporting or conflicting opinions. Your plan/s will also help you to better balance the size and format of the finished product e.g. how many words, how many and what types of figures and tables, and what line of argument should be presented in the various parts of the essay? In addition, the plan will be the guide for writing your essay drafts.

As your plan takes shape, you will develop a strategy to find the kind of information necessary for your argument. A good place to start is the recommended text books for the course or relevant books in the reading list contained in the course outline. Read any chapters which are relevant to the topic, and perhaps take note of other relevant sources referenced in the bibliography. Suggested lecture readings will help (see the Lecture Reading Guide above). Some texts and collections of readings contain ‘annotated bibliographies’ which describe the most useful references on various topics.

Although lecture notes may be a good introduction, they are not suitable for citation as a source of information for an essay. Do not refer to lecture notes in the body of your essay or list them in the bibliography. Similarly, we discourage reference to this subject’s major text because we want you to read more widely. Home encyclopedias may also provide you with some initial ideas, but again please do not rely on these - use the specialised textbooks and journal articles as the major sources for your essay. Some students may gather ideas about an essay topic from relevant television or radio documentaries. When listing documentary material in your bibliography make sure that all the information is provided (ie. producer, date produced, title, date and name of programme where screened [some of these details can be found in the credits at the end of the film] ) so that others could locate the information. As a rule, documentary materials are too general for academic essays except where specific primary source material is included and cannot be verified elsewhere.

The internet/world wide web may also prove problematic. Some obvious problems are the lack of verification of data or opinion and the general lack of dating of material expressed at different sites; the inadequacy or inappropriate nature of material written for general audiences (e.g. much environmental information is too superficial for our purposes); the lack of adequate citation of source materials used; and the cost and time-consuming nature of surfing the net. Specialist sites (e.g. NGOs and government or semi-government agencies) may be useful, but be critical of the biases they all contain. If they are used, information gleaned must be thoroughly cited e.g. with author, detailed web address and date of contact, etc. As a general rule, the internet is a useful supplement to hard-copy and electronic serials and books, and we would expect that no more than one-quarter of your references quoted in your essay would come ‘off the net’.

There are numerous libraries at Monash, but the ones that will be of most use to you for these essays are the Sir Louis Matheson Library and the Hargrave-Andrew Library. Monash Caulfield, Berwick and Gippsland are also useful for students with limited access to Clayton. Within these buildings lies a wealth of information about Geography! Start finding suitable material by using the magnificent library CATALOGUE - something you can access from on or off the campus. Go to Appendix A below to learn how to use the library from the comfort of your computer! And don't forget the library's on-line Geography and Environmental Science Subject Guide.

Once you have found a particular book/journal on the shelves,look at the other books either side of it (i.e. call number), as it is quite likely that they will have relevant information as well. Remember that you don't have to read the entire book to find what you need. Look up chapters or the index and then just read the parts that are of interest!

Journals (or serials) contain useful articles. The advantage of journal articles is that they are much more specific,current and provide a lot of relevant information (in contrast to books which are often more general). More particularly, academic journals are produced by a rigorous peer-review process which generally ensures more reliable information. Selected key journals are listed in the GES subject guide (linked above).They are also often listed in your unit guide and can be searched in the catalogue

The Library also provides a wide range of on-line databases which index the journals and provide a very efficient way of finding relevant articles. Databases are arranged by broad subject and can be found on the databases and electronic resources page.

Now that you have begun to explore the information, skim through the sections that look useful, jot down the main points, carefully re-read the important sections, and make more detailed notes. A systematic guide to note-taking is presented below in Appendix B. Remember to fully reference the material as you go along! That is, write down the exact details of the author, title, date, call number, etc. Go back to the structure plan of your essay and place your assembled information roughly into the order which "fills out" the structure. Decide what material actually contributes to the essay, and discard anything that doesn't. Remember it is extremely important to answer the question that has been asked, rather than going off on a tangent. Be critically selective! Now that we have got you into the library, remember that you will have to go back many times for references as your plan and draft develops.

2. Writing the Essay

It is a good idea to develop the essay through a series of rough drafts to the final draft. Some people may be able to move speedily from a first draft to an essay in its final form, but most find it valuable to re-write several times, having put the essay aside for a day or two each time. It is important that you organise your time well in advance to enable you to go through this drafting revision process. You will produce a better essay, and it will almost certainly receive a better grade. Please recognise that essays are worth a large proportion of the marks in a course and therefore it is a good idea to get organised and make these marks count.

Regardless of the length of the essay it must have three components: an INTRODUCTION, a BODY, and a CONCLUSION.

In the INTRODUCTION present the aims, scope and procedure of the essay. It may be appropriate at this stage to state any limits you propose to place upon your discussion, to justify your particular focus and to define any special terms to be employed. You may also want to clarify and justify any particular perspective or orientation that you will take.

In the BODY of the essay, construct each paragraph around a separate idea. If you jumble up too many ideas in a paragraph without some kind of unifying device it suggests unclear thought and lack of organisation. Almost invariably it is better not to have single sentence paragraphs. Make sure that your paragraphs are linked and flow naturally from one to the other (hence the importance of a plan). Finally, at all times ensure that the essay question is being answered. It is almost impossible for an essay to pass if it fails to address the question being asked.

Sub-headings are used extensively in the natural and social sciences, but are less common in the humanities. The use of sub-headings is encouraged in Physical Geography, in the style characteristic of scientific journals. In Human Geography the more organised your essay the less it will need to have sub-headings. We are asking for a fluent, well-documented argument, not a descriptive point-form report.

Figures or tables should be used in your essay to present information which illustrates, clarifies or reinforces your ideas. Make sure that the figure or table is relevant to your argument, and that you refer to it in the body of the essay. They should not be included merely to 'decorate' the essay. Observations and conclusions from the illustrations should be made explicit in the text – i.e. you must refer specifically to the key points in each figure, table and appendix.. Figures and tables should have titles and should be numbered consecutively (ie. Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Figure 3. Table 2, etc.). Their source should be clearly shown. Indiscriminate photocopying of tables and diagrams to be included in essays is not recommended as they often contain superfluous information. It is better to design your own figures and tables rather than to copy those of others. You will gain marks for well designed and presented figures and tables, and lose marks for cluttered, irrelevant or poorly reproduced ones. Remember that the source of these diagrams or tables must be cited in the text and listed in the bibliography. For cartographic conventions please refer to Appendix C.

In the CONCLUSION the aim is to pull the main findings or observations together. While there are many ways of concluding, a simple method is to sketch, in a sentence or two, what you did and then relate your key findings to the essay topic.

3. The Final Form

In most cases, typewritten work is more pleasing to the eye and easier to read. However, if your handwriting is LEGIBLE, it is acceptable. Naturally, typewritten work does not automatically qualify for higher grades. It is mandatory that you write on only one side of the paper. Leave GENEROUS MARGINS ON EITHER SIDE so that the marker can offer comments on your work. Sheets should be stapled together or placed in a folder: in the event of your essay pages becoming separated, it will help if your name is on each sheet.(Please do not place your essay into the type of folder with each page in a separate plastic sheet, as it makes writing comments on your work much more difficult!) You must also include an essay cover sheet, available for download here

It is very important that you acknowledge fully the sources of information used in the preparation of your essay (and also information used in figures and tables). The preferred citation method for essays submitted in the Department of Geography and Environmental Science is the Harvard (in-text) System.

In this system, when presenting information gathered from a source such as book or journal article, the author's name, the date of publication of the work, and page number (if a direct quote) are listed in parentheses. For example '...and more than 70% of Australia may be described as arid (Mabbutt, 1969, 214).' The reader then turns to the reference list (bibliography) at the end of the essay to find full details of the source of the reference. Page numbers may be omitted from the details provided in the text if you are paraphrasing the work (ie. after reading the article re-writing the information in your own words). Taking direct quotes from numerous sources and "pasting" them together results in a disjointed piece of work. It is much better to read the information, think about how it fits into your essay, and then paraphrase the information. Of course you must cite the source of the information in the standard way. Reserve direct quotations for just a few important points throughout the essay.

When citing a reference that was written by two authors you need to quote both author's names eg. (Linacre and Hobbs, 1982).

When citing a reference that was written by multiple authors, rather than quote the list of authors in full, you should name just the first author and then use the expression et al. (a contraction of et alii, meaning 'and others'). Thus, instead of (Chisholm, Frey and Hassett, 1971) use (Chisholm et al., 1971). Note that in the bibliography, a full reference naming all authors must be provided. Note also that there must be a full stop after the contraction al. .

Occasionally you may have to use a secondary quotation: that is, when one author cites another and you wish to use that reference. In such a case the simplest method if Masters is quoting Johnston is to put (Johnston in Masters, 1969,31).

If you wish to omit some words from a literal quotation, this must be indicated by three dots in your text ( ... ), or by four dots ( .... ) if the omission follows the end of a sentence in the original. Additions to be original should be enclosed in square brackets [ ].

Failure to acknowledge sources of information or quotations can lead to the charge of plagiarism and possibly to a total loss of marks for the essay. You must observe this rule carefully; often you may need to give a reference to the same work several times on a single page of your essay, if it is a work on which you have drawn heavily for your material.

4. Bibliography

The bibliography at the end of the essay should list on a separate page, in alphabetical order of the author's surnames, all books, articles, etc. used in the preparation of the essay. You must include all works referred to in the text. Works read but not actually referred to in the essay can be listed under a heading such as "other readings" or "references" if you consider that they were influential in your writing.

We would expect a first semester first year essay to have about a dozen references in the bibliography with better essays generally having more than this. We don’t think it too much to expect that you can find a couple of useful references per week until your essay is due in. As you progress to second semester, and then second and third year, you should aim to expand the list and incorporate more relevant journal articles. The suggested form for a bibliography is as follows (note that variations in bibliographic form exist between different publishers - what is important is that you are consistent in the style you adopt):

BOOKS: Author's name(s), surname first, then initials, year of publication (and they don’t have to be in brackets), book title underlined or in italics, details of publisher and place of publication, (and number of pages - optional), e.g.:

Avery, T. E. (1977) Interpretation of aerial photographs. Burgess, Minneapolis. 392 pp.

Learmouth, N. & Learmouth, A. (1971) Regional landscapes of Australia. Angus &

Robertson, Sydney. 439 pp.

ARTICLES: Author's name and initials, date of publication, title of the article, name of journal underlined or in italics, volume number, beginning and ending page numbers of the article, e.g.:.

Friedman, J. R. P. (1991) ‘The concept of a planning region’.Land Economics. 32: 1- 13.

Dodson, J. R. (1974) ‘Vegetation and climatic history near Lake Keilambete’, Western Victoria. Australian Journal of Botany. 22: 709-717.

INTERNET SITES: must include the full site address; date and time of access; along with any citation internal to the document (e.g. author).

MISCELLANEOUS: give full details of figures, tables, reports, interviews, documentaries, etc.

5. Assessment

GES1000 essays will be assessed according to the following criteria and the extent to which you perform across them. Criteria sheets similar to that shown in Appendix D will be used by your tutor and relevant comments returned to you attached to your marked essay. The criteria have been arranged to reflect the broad sequence of writing your essay, and is therefore divided into two broad areas: Research and Content. Each area has particular criteria which need to be addressed. The criteria comprise:

1. RESEARCH

[Having completed the research phase you are now ready to construct your argument and communicate your ideas as effectively and convincingly as possible.]

2. CONTENT

[For each of the twelve specific criteria, a mark (tick) will show you your achievement level – High, Medium, Low, and Not Satisfactory. In some cases, your tutor may indicate inconsistency and/or make special comments for each criteria. Remember that the criteria are often interdependent e.g. a poorly researched essay will have poor content, and poor communication will spoil even the best research.]

Work marked in the School of Geography & Environmental Science will be returned to you graded according to the following system:

A grade of HD indicates a score of 80% or better. A grade of D indicates a score in the range of 70 - 79% A grade of C indicates a score in the range of 60 - 69% A grade of P indicates a score in the range of 50 - 59% A grade of P2 indicates a score in the range of 45 - 49% A grade of N indicates a score in the range of 0 - 44%.

The marker may in addition indicate by the use of + and - signs whether you are respectively at the top or bottom of the particular mark range (eg. C+ to indicate a grade probably in the high 70s).

6. Miscellaneous Check List

* Essays should have a title , which should be the question asked, or topic raised for review or analysis. * Pages should be numbered and each page should carry your name. Your name, practical session day and time and your tutors name (if relevant) should be listed on the front page. * Foreign expressions should be in italics, but as some people do not have access to italics, these expressions should be underlined (ie. a priori, inter alia, per se, etc.). * The Harvard (or ‘in text’) referencing system is the preferred method of citation. * All figures and tables must be numbered and provided with brief clear captions. Captions are placed below figures and above tables. Figures and tables must show the source of their information and these sources must be listed in the bibliography (see Appendix B). You must refer specifically to each figure/table in the text. * Books and articles are not listed in separate bibliographies. They appear together in alphabetical order. If the same author has produced more than one work, the entries should be in chronological order. If the same author has produced multiple works in the one year they should be referred to as 1995(a), 1995(b), etc. * It is poor essay form to use the first person (eg. 'In this essay I am going to...'). This is mainly to avoid repetition and reduce the word length. If it is necessary to refer to yourself, something like 'the author' would be better, if not pretentious. It is best to avoid the problem altogether by using alternative phrasing (eg. 'In this essay the .... issue is considered'). Nevertheless, the occasional use of the first person can add clarity or emphasis when required - or at least I feel it can! * If you feel that you need further advice on any aspect of essay production, by all means ask a member of staff. You may also find it of value to refer to one of the many published handbooks on essay and report writing available in the library and bookshops. A useful short guide is:

Hay, I. 1996 Communicating in Geography and the Environmental Sciences, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 184pp.

* Please check your essay’s spelling and written expression. If you are aware of any particular difficulties, make use of the specialist courses for first year students run at the beginning of first semester in basic study methods and essay writing, etc. in all faculties. If you feel you need extra assistance just ask the friendly staff at your Faculty information desk. But don’t leave it too late - the courses are usually only in the first few weeks. Special introductory sessions are also available at all Monash libraries in the first couple of weeks of semester, but again the onus is on you to sign up and attend. * It is most important that you retain a copy (photocopy or draft) of your essay. Essays can go astray, so this is a useful 'insurance policy' and will save you much time and effort should your essay be misplaced. * Essays should be submitted, by 5 pm on the due date, in either your Unit Coordinator's, Lecturer's, or Tutors Essay box (opposite rooms220, 2nd Floor, South wing). Your Unit Guide will state which box you should sbmit the essay to. If you need an extension of time to finish your essay please see your lecturer or tutor before the due date. Penalties will apply to late essays at the rate outlined in the unit guide. VCE Enhancement students will have special arrangements with their teacher and the Course Co-ordinator for the submission of tutorial/practical and essay material. * Please note that " computer problems" and "printer problems" are not acceptable excuses for essay extensions. Make sure that you produce a hard (paper) copy of your essay periodically so if your computer fails you can submit a hand written version of your essay. * Do not fax your essay to the department. It will not be accepted under any circumstances and a late penalty will apply. * All forms of plagiarism will be dealt with severely. Unauthorised copying of work without proper citation is regarded as cheating and severe penalties apply throughout the university (see Faculty Handbooks)

Appendix A. LEARNING TO USE THE LIBRARY - SOME SIMPLE FIRST STEPS

Access the Monash library @ www.lib.monash.edu.au

The most useful links for undergraduate students are the Catalogue, Reading lists and Subject Guides and Databases, These links are also available via the Library tab in your my.monash site. It is a good idea to become familiar with the contents of these pages as they contain the heart of you success at Monash. The Library homepage also includes information about opening hours, borrowing conditions, and links to a wide range of services including classes and workshops to help you achieve the best results.

The Monash Library Catalogue is your gateway to the library's collections - books, journals, maps, multimedia resources, databases. In short, everything you will need for your studies. Searching is fairly straightforward and there is help available via a link at the top of the catalogue search screens. Once you have searched the catalogue and found some books or journals, you will need to note the entire call number, including the name of the collection the item belongs to. Note that each library contains a number of different collections, (eg. Serials/journals and books are located in different areas, as are reserve materials, and the Matheson Library also has an Undergraduate and a Main collection. There are floorplans of each of libraries on line and printed maps at the information desks. The Library conducts catalogue classes at the beginning of each semester and it is worth attending one of these.

The Geography and Environmental Science subject guide, is regularly updated by GES subject librarian Katalin Mindum. The page includes major resources such as Electronic Journals, Databases and Internet resources for Geography and Environmental Science .

Other Useful sites

Appendix B: ACADEMIC READING AND NOTE-TAKING

To make the most of your studies in Geography and Environmental Science, you will need to undertake a large volume and wide variety of reading. This might not be too great a shock for voracious readers fresh from a successful VCE, but it does require a considerable effort. As in your previous studies, reading will supply vital information when:

* supporting other material such as when regularly checking texts and recommended references to clarify and extend class notes, * researching specific topics such as essays, and * revising for examinations.

Nevertheless, there are some important differences with reading at university. Academic works are rarely written in a popular style; they are produced for specialist audiences, address very specific problems, use high-level language for clarity and precision, and are often laden with highly technical terms and graphics. These works may contain an enormous amount of detailed information, but it is the nature and quality of the ideas that is your major concern. By its very nature, much of the material you will be studying will be complex and may still be in dispute amongst so-called ‘experts’. Therefore, you will face a lot of often confusing and conflicting opinions about particular problems - the popular notion of merely ‘finding the facts’ is of little help. And of course as a university student, you will be working independently with little guidance on either the source or value of the references you choose to read.

You will need to think critically and systematically about the ideas expressed.

The Essay Writing Guide shown above offers some general directions, but listed below are a few reading and note-taking habits that may make your academic reading more efficient and effective.

1. Read with a clear purpose in mind so that you can identify relevant material and measure your progress. It may be worth posing a brief set of specific questions or tasks before you start reading - at the very least take the exact essay/tutorial topic with you.

2. Read consistently (e.g. during a set library session each week) rather than cramming - you will have more time to think critically, reflect upon and develop your thoughts.

3. Always make your own notes summarising the relevant points. Underlining or highlighting is better than trying to memorise, but they are both a poor substitute for writing the key points yourself. Use a separate sheet of paper or at least annotate the margins of photocopied readings (never the original). Write or keep all of your notes in the one place e.g. a binder or notebook so that they may be compared and developed. Don’t forget to record bibliographic detail and call numbers for later use. Miller recommends concept mapping as a useful revision technique (see Miller’s Appendix 4).

4. Note specific examples which you could incorporate in your own work. Excellent graphics should also be noted if they assist your understanding and future explanation of that topic, but remember that it is unacceptable to include photocopies of them in your own work (even with appropriate acknowledgment).

Where appropriate, you should try to identify and note the following (optional questions are included in parentheses [....]). All you need are some precise, well structured point form notes about the six (or seven) different items below. Obviously, you can devote most attention to those aspects of the problem relevant to your particular task (as in point 1 above). Simply ask yourself about the ‘PAMECIB’:

i. Context and nature of the problem.

Why are they addressing this issue? What aspects are they emphasising? What exactly is the problem as they see it?

ii. Structure and direction of the argument.

What is the argument/thesis/hypothesis being discussed/tested? (This may be in the form of an ‘If . . . then . . .’ statement with explicit preconditions and parameters.)

iii. Methodology used to address the problem.

What techniques or methods do they incorporate to convince you of the validity of their argument? [Are their methods replicable, reliable and convincing?]

iv. Type and use of evidence.

What sorts of evidence/examples are used? Is this anecdotal? [Is their sufficient evidence to maintain the argument?]

v. Conclusions.

What precisely do they conclude? [Are their conclusions adequate?]

vi. Implications of the study.

So what? What does this study tell us about previous arguments/investigations of this problem? What does this study imply for our management of the problem ‘in the real world’? Do the authors highlight any strengths or weaknesses in their own argument?

vii. Biographic information about the authors is optional - but it may help differentiate between competing or changing arguments. It is essential for a formal book review.]

This ‘PAMECIB’ framework may seem unwieldy, but it is precisely the type of structure used in the bulk of academic work in the natural and social sciences. It should demonstrate the necessity of actually making notes which force you to think more critically and abstractly than would be the case when you rely on the photocopier and highlighter pen. It will help you to think like the authors of your readings. And finally, it will certainly encourage you to express the problem in your own words - the basis of any good essay writing!

Appendix C: CARTOGRAPHIC CONVENTIONS

1. A map is oriented North uppermost and the orientation is indicated by:

(a) an arrow (North Point), (b) a compass rose, or (c) labelled lines of latitude and longitude.

2. The map should have a clear, descriptive title (ie. not 'Map 4') and the title should be centred at the top of the map. Maps and diagrams should be referred to as 'Figures'.

3. Map scale is indicated by:

(a) a linear scale, b) properly labelled parallels and meridians, or (c) the representative fraction (eg. 1: 50 000).

4. The map is bounded by a 'window' more properly called a neat line which serves as the terminus of all line and area symbols which in fact continue beyond the map limits.

5. Map elements which have no fixed location (ie. the title, the scale, and key) should be enclosed in rectangular panels or boxes, or otherwise clearly distinguished from the mapped information.

6. Sources of data and of the base map should be clearly acknowledged.

7. Symbols shown in the key, or legend, should reproduce exactly the symbols used on the map itself.

8. Different kinds of symbols, either areal or linear, should be used for different kinds of phenomena.

9. Symbols should be different sizes or different intensity or value (of colours or tones of areal symbols) or different magnitudes of similar phenomena. The largest quantity should always be represented by the darkest value or the biggest symbol.

10. Lettering of place names should be differentiated by:

(a) different sizes for different magnitudes of similar phenomena (eg. towns > villages), (b) different styles of lettering for different kinds of phenomena (frequently italic is used for physical features, upright for cultural features), (c) UPPER CASE letters used for place names located within the named feature (eg. PACIFIC OCEAN, AUSTRALIA), (d) Lower Case letters with initial capitals for place names located beside the symbol for the feature (eg. towns [Melbourne], creeks [Darling River]).

11. Lettering should be horizontal whenever possible or oriented to reflect the linear trend of a feature (eg. a river), but when lettering departs from a horizontal orientation -

(a) lettering to the left of the centre of the map should read from bottom to top, and (b) lettering to the right of the centre of the map should read from top to bottom.

12. Use consistent styles, formats, symbols, fonts, etc. where appropriate.

Appendix D: GES1000 CRITERIA-BASED ESSAY ASSESSMENT SHEET

ASPECT SPECIFIC CRITERIA (As demonstrated in essay by students...) Achievement level
H M L Ns

RESEARCH

Interpretation of question understanding of the nature and context of the essay question, as well as explaining key concepts        
Extent of research number, variety and difficulty of the references used        
Comprehension of source materials ability to select relevant points from the readings        

ability to distinguish between various arguments including the development/diversification of ideas

        

ability to synthesize/summarise ideas

        
 

CONTENT
Quality of argument

development of a logically-structured argument

        

use of appropriate supporting evidence

        

critical evaluation of ideas (including critique of contrary arguments, positions, or evidence)

        

relevance in dealing with the essay topic (and consistency with any explicit interpretation)

        
Communication of argument

writing skills (including spelling, punctuation, grammar and clarity of expression)

        

use of appropriate data presentation methods (including figures [maps, plates] and tables)

        
use of appropriate bibliographic conventions (including referencing and bibliography)        

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